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The Cognitive Sciences | SAGE Publications Inc
Download Book Computer Science An Interdisciplinary Approach in PDF format. You can Read Online Computer Science An Interdisciplinary Approach here in PDF, EPUB, Mobi or Docx formats. The Cognitive Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Second Edition offers an engaging, thorough introduction to the cognitive blogger.coms Carolyn Sobel and Paul Li examine the historical and contemporary issues and research findings of the core cognitive science disciplines: cognitive psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, and philosophy. Download full-text PDF. the current volume is the outcome of the “Cognitive Sciences - An Interdisciplinary Approach” research team’s outreach activity within the SOP HRD///S.
The cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, embracing philosophy, psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology. Its intellectual origins are in the mids when researchers in several fields began to develop theories of mind based on the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download representations and computational procedures.
Its organizational origins are in the mids when the Cognitive Science Society was formed and the journal Cognitive Science began. Since then, more than one hundred universities in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia have established cognitive science programs, and many others have instituted courses in cognitive science. Attempts to understand the mind and its operation go back at least to the Ancient Greeks, when philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle tried to explain the nature of human knowledge.
The study of mind remained the province of philosophy until the nineteenth century, when experimental psychology developed.
Wilhelm Wundt and his students initiated laboratory methods for studying mental operations more systematically. Within a few decades, however, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download, experimental psychology became dominated by behaviorisma view that virtually denied the existence of mind.
According to behaviorists such as J. Watson, psychology should restrict itself to examining the relation between observable stimuli and observable behavioral responses.
Talk of consciousness and mental representations was banished from respectable scientific discussion, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download. Especially in North America, behaviorism dominated the psychological scene through the s. Aroundthe intellectual landscape the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download to change dramatically, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download.
George Miller summarized numerous studies which showed that the capacity of human thinking is limited, with short-term memory, for example, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download, limited to around seven items. He proposed that memory limitations can be overcome by recoding information into chunks, mental representations that require mental procedures for encoding and decoding the information. At this time, primitive computers had been around for only a few years, but pioneers such as John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon were founding the field of artificial intelligence.
In addition, Noam Chomsky rejected behaviorist assumptions about language as a learned habit and proposed instead to explain language comprehension in terms of mental grammars consisting of rules. The six thinkers mentioned in this paragraph can be viewed as the founders of cognitive science. Cognitive science has unifying theoretical ideas, but we have to appreciate the diversity of outlooks and methods that researchers in different fields bring to the study of mind and intelligence.
Although cognitive psychologists today often engage in theorizing and computational modeling, their primary method is experimentation with human participants. People, often undergraduates satisfying course requirements, are brought into the laboratory so that different kinds of thinking can be studied under controlled conditions. For example, psychologists have experimentally examined the kinds of mistakes people make in deductive reasoning, the ways that people form the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download apply concepts, the speed of people thinking with mental images, and the performance of people solving problems using analogies.
Psychological experiments that carefully approach mental operations from diverse directions are therefore crucial for cognitive science to be scientific. Experimentation is also a methodology employed by experimental philosophy.
Although theory without experiment is empty, experiment without theory is blind. The cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download address the crucial questions about the nature of mind, the psychological experiments need to be interpretable within a theoretical framework that postulates mental representations and procedures.
One of the best ways of developing theoretical frameworks is by forming and testing computational models intended to be analogous to mental operations. To complement psychological experiments on deductive reasoning, concept formation, mental imagery, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download, and analogical problem solving, researchers have developed computational models that simulate aspects of human performance.
Designing, building, and experimenting with computational models is the central method of artificial intelligence AIthe branch of computer science concerned with intelligent systems. Ideally in cognitive science, computational models and psychological experimentation go hand in hand, but much important work in AI has examined the power of different approaches to knowledge representation in relative isolation from experimental psychology. While some linguists do psychological experiments or develop computational models, most currently use different methods.
For linguists in the Chomskian tradition, the main theoretical task is to identify grammatical principles that provide the basic structure of human languages. Identification takes place by noticing subtle differences between grammatical and ungrammatical utterances.
A grammar of English will explain why the former are acceptable but not the latter. An alternative approach, cognitive linguistics, puts less emphasis on syntax and more on semantics and concepts. Like cognitive psychologists, neuroscientists often perform controlled experiments, but their observations are very different, since neuroscientists are concerned directly with the nature of the brain.
With nonhuman subjects, researchers can insert electrodes and record the firing of individual neurons. With humans for whom this technique would be too invasive, it is now common to use magnetic and positron scanning devices to observe what is happening in different parts of the brain while people are doing various mental tasks. For example, brain scans have identified the regions of the brain involved in mental imagery and word interpretation.
Additional evidence about brain functioning is gathered by observing the performance of people whose brains have been damaged in identifiable ways. A stroke, for example, in a part of the brain dedicated to language can produce deficits such as the inability to utter sentences. Like cognitive psychology, neuroscience is often theoretical as well as experimental, and theory development is frequently aided by developing computational models of the behavior of groups of neurons.
Cognitive anthropology expands the examination of human thinking to consider how thought works in different cultural settings. The study of mind should obviously not be restricted to how English speakers think but should consider possible differences in modes of thinking across cultures. Cognitive science is becoming increasingly aware of the need to view the operations of mind in particular physical and social environments. For cultural anthropologists, the main method the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download ethnography, which requires living and interacting with members of a culture to a sufficient extent that their social and cognitive systems become apparent.
Cognitive anthropologists have investigated, for example, the similarities and differences across cultures in words for colors. Traditionally, philosophers do not perform systematic empirical observations or construct computational models, although there has been a recent rise in work in experimental philosophy.
But philosophy remains important to cognitive science because it deals with fundamental issues that underlie the experimental and computational approach to mind. Abstract questions such as the nature of representation and computation need not be addressed in the everyday practice of psychology or artificial intelligence, but they inevitably arise when researchers think deeply about what they are doing.
Philosophy also deals with general questions such as the relation of mind and body and with methodological questions such as the nature of explanations found in cognitive science. In addition, philosophy concerns itself with normative questions about how people should think as well as with descriptive ones about how they do.
Besides the theoretical goal of understanding human thinking, cognitive science can have the practical goal of improving it, which requires normative reflection on what we want thinking to be. Philosophy of mind does not have a distinct method, but should share with the best theoretical work in other fields a concern with empirical results. In its weakest form, cognitive science is just the sum of the fields mentioned: psychology, artificial intelligence, linguistics, neuroscience, anthropology, and philosophy, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download.
Interdisciplinary work becomes much more interesting when there is theoretical and experimental convergence on conclusions about the nature of mind. For example, psychology and artificial intelligence can be combined through computational models of how people behave in experiments. The best way to grasp the complexity of human thinking is to use multiple methods, especially psychological and neurological experiments and computational models.
Theoretically, the most fertile approach has been to understand the mind in terms of representation and computation. The central hypothesis of cognitive science is that thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.
While there is much disagreement about the nature of the representations and computations that constitute thinking, the central hypothesis is general enough to encompass the current range of thinking in cognitive science, including connectionist theories which model thinking using artificial neural networks.
Most work in cognitive science assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to computer data structures, and computational procedures similar to computational algorithms. Cognitive theorists have proposed that the mind contains such mental representations as logical propositions, rules, concepts, images, and analogies, and that it uses mental procedures such as deduction, search, matching, rotating, and retrieval.
The dominant mind-computer analogy in cognitive science has taken on a novel twist from the use of another analog, the brain. Connectionists have proposed novel ideas about representation and computation that use neurons and their connections as inspirations for data structures, and neuron firing and spreading activation as inspirations for algorithms.
Cognitive science then works with a complex 3-way analogy among the mind, the brain, and computers. Mind, brain, and computation can each be used to suggest new ideas about the others. There is no single computational model of mind, since different kinds of computers and programming approaches suggest different ways in which the mind might work. The computers that most of us work with today are serial processors, performing one instruction at a time, but the brain and some recently developed computers are parallel processors, capable of doing many operations at once.
A major trend in current cognitive science is the integration of neuroscience with many areas of psychology, including cognitive, social, developmental, and clinical. This integration is partly experimental, resulting from an explosion of new instruments for studying the brain, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and optogenetics.
The integration is also theoretical, because of advances in understanding how large populations of neurons can perform tasks usually explained with cognitive theories of rules and concepts. Here is a schematic summary of current theories about the nature of the representations and computations that explain how the mind works.
Formal logic provides some powerful tools for looking at the nature of representation and computation. Propositional and predicate calculus serve to express many complex kinds of knowledge, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download, and the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download inferences can be understood in terms of logical deduction with inferences rules such as modus ponens.
The explanation schema for the logical approach is:. It is not certain, however, that logic provides the core ideas about representation and computation needed for cognitive science, the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download, since more efficient and psychologically natural methods of computation may be the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download to explain human thinking.
Much of human knowledge is naturally described in terms of rules of the form IF … THEN …, and many kinds of thinking such as planning can be modeled by rule-based systems. The explanation schema used is:. Computational models based on rules have provided detailed simulations of a wide range of psychological experiments, from cryptarithmetic problem solving to skill acquisition to language use.
Rule-based systems have also been of practical importance in suggesting how to improve learning and how to develop intelligent machine systems. Concepts, which partly correspond to the words in spoken and written language, are an important kind of mental representation. There are computational and psychological reasons for abandoning the classical view that concepts have strict definitions. Instead, concepts can be viewed as sets of typical features. Concept application is then a matter of getting an approximate match between concepts and the world.
Schemas and scripts are more complex than concepts that correspond to words, but they are similar in that they consist of bundles of features that can be matched and applied to new situations. The explanatory schema used in concept-based systems is:.
Analogies play an important role in human thinking, in areas as diverse as problem solving, decision making, explanation, and linguistic communication. Computational models simulate how people retrieve and map source analogs in order to apply them to target situations.
The explanation schema for analogies is:. The constraints of similarity, structure, and purpose overcome the difficult problem of how previous experiences can be found and used to help with new problems. Not all thinking is analogical, and using inappropriate analogies can hinder thinking, but analogies can be very effective in applications such as education and design.
Visual and other kinds of images play an important role in human thinking. Pictorial representations capture visual and spatial information in a much more usable form than lengthy verbal descriptions.
Computational procedures well suited to visual representations include inspecting, finding, zooming, rotating, and transforming. Such operations can be very useful for generating plans and explanations in domains to which pictorial representations apply. The explanatory schema for visual representation is:.
Imagery can aid learning, and some metaphorical aspects of language may have their roots in imagery. Psychological experiments suggest that visual procedures such as scanning and rotating employ imagery, and neurophysiological results confirm a close physical link between reasoning with mental imagery and perception.
The Cognitive Sciences An Interdisciplinary Approach
, time: 0:26The cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach pdf download
The Cognitive Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Second Edition offers an engaging, thorough introduction to the cognitive blogger.coms Carolyn Sobel and Paul Li examine the historical and contemporary issues and research findings of the core cognitive science disciplines: cognitive psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, and philosophy. The Cognitive Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Second Edition offers an engaging, thorough introduction to the cognitive blogger.coms Carolyn Sobel and Paul Li examine the historical and contemporary issues and research findings of the core cognitive science disciplines: cognitive psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, linguistics, evolutionary psychology, and blogger.com by: that published today as a guide. Our site has the following Ebook Pdf the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach available for free PDF download. You may find Ebook Pdf the cognitive sciences an interdisciplinary approach document other than just manuals as we also make available many user guides, specifications documents.
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